Friday, August 28, 2020
gender issues in jails :: essays research papers
The article I picked is named Gender Issues in the New Generation Jail, by Patrick G. Jackson, and Cindy A. Stearns. The hotspot for this article is the Prison Journal. The article clarifies how people in the new correctional facilities have adjusted. The meaning of the new prison is a fifty-man case style prison. The old prison was viewed as coldhearted, disturbing, and have many vulnerable sides. The issues in the old correctional facilities were developing step by step. The new prison comes outfitted with TVs, separate showers, a telephone, and different amusements. The prisoners utilized in the examination were completely reviewed a half year prior and a half year after the prison was opened. The people both demonstrated critical contrasts in one another.      There have been considers that show that detainee mentality and conduct improves in the distinctive administration style prison. A case of this is the ongoing examination indicated a decrease in ambushes, spray painting, and booty. (Jackson, P. and Stearns, C. 1995) This study was accumulated to get sentiments from the prisoners to help in prison research. The reviews were separated into eight distinct classifications to                                                   Darcey 2 show their view of the old and new correctional facilities. Protection, security, structure, support, passionate criticism, social reenactment, movement, and opportunity were the eight classes utilized. Protection was characterized as harmony, calm, and nonappearance from natural aggravations, for example, clamor and swarming. Security was an inclination for settings that gave an insurance that limited the odds of being assaulted. Structure can be portrayed as an inclination for consistency in the standards, planned occasion, and impingement. Backing is characterized as the help from people and administrations that encourage self-progression and personal growth. Enthusiastic criticism is the worry about being adored, acknowledged, and thought about. Social incitement is the inclination for settings that give a chance to social communication and friendship. Movement is an interruption that occupies time. In conclusion opportunity was the requirement for negligible limitation however m ost extreme chance to administer ones own direct. (Jackson, P. and Stearns, C. 1995) I accept these classifications picked were excellent and all around characterized. This was a decent technique for research.      Of the prisoners utilized in the review the greater part of them have earlier captures. Just about 50% of the prisoners have                                                   Darcey 3 been in prison at least multiple times. Both the guys and the females share this trademark. The seriousness of the wrongdoing is higher in the guys in any case.
Saturday, August 22, 2020
Essay --
Courtney Peters Paper 1 Rough Draft ENG 308 2/21/14 Donne: The Imprint Left Behind Each essayist leaves his imprint, his engraving, in his composition; a thumb print abandoned the ink in the event that you realize what to look like for it, and Donne is no special case. The issue is extricating Donne’s engraving, and embodiment, from the sonnet, and understanding what that informs us regarding him. In one sonnet specifically this sticks out, his Holy Sonnet IX, where Donne’s engrave waits, giving another story behind the content, of his confidence in God, yet additionally his inward addressing, and confliction and uncertainty which come out as inconsistencies. Behind the content, Holy Sonnet IX, as Donne talks through his speaker and sonnet, we come to comprehend that he is a strict man, however tangled, which prompts uncertainty and inconsistencies, as he disdains God as it were, while likewise simply longing for his exculpation and for him to overlook and excuse his transgressions and wash them away, sins which burden him vigorously and he accepts co rrupt him. Taking a gander at Donne’s Holy Sonnet IX, you can see where parts of his self are covered up under the content, on the off chance that you just skill to look and how to decipher what you find. Donne rehashes â€Å"I†all through the sonnet multiple times, and keeping in mind that doing so he reflects portions of his internal identity, yet changes his point of view each time. In the principal case of â€Å"I†, Donne composes, â€Å"If lustful goats, if snakes jealous/Cannot be damn’d; Alas; for what reason should I bee?†(3-4). Here he addresses God, requesting to know why he ought to be cursed when the lewd goats, and snakes can't not be denounced and doomed for their transgressions. The second case of â€Å"I†anyway composes, â€Å"But whou am I, that challenge debate with thee/O God? Goodness! of thine onely commendable blood,†where he moves from indignantly addressing... ...e overlooked and he isn't condemned by them. The figment and symbolism underscore the seriousness of his craving for God to overlook his wrongdoings, the transgressions which he stresses by alluding to them as â€Å"black sins†using extreme language in calling them hence, to additionally obscure the effectively negative meaning of his wrongdoings and their evilness. The suggestion talks about the enormity of Donne’s distress, in that he would cry a stream, his desire at long last, more than anything, for his wrongdoings to be overlooked and him undammed, and his considerations on sins, that they are dark, his dimness, his corrupt, his shame, indebting him to God who thusly damns him. - Create an end, short, yet summarizes: What I mean by Imprint How his engraving sparkles throu, otherwise known as, what we take in of him from: His utilization of I His example His inferences, symbolism, and language Ought to be one for each passage for most
Friday, August 21, 2020
Final Ethics Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words
Last Ethics - Assignment Example This is to imply that philanthropic people live to benefit others. As found in the exploration directed by Albee (2014), the creator additionally clarifies that people have the commitment to act not on their own needs however on the requirements of others. Then again, utilitarianism chips away at the grounds that a decent demonstration is one that builds the fulfillment of people just as the general public everywhere (Albee, 2014). Be that as it may, the people being referred to are relied upon to have an upbeat existence. An augmentation of utility is the premise on utilitarianism, for example, people trying to have a fruitful existence, having solidness throughout everyday life, limit odds of them enduring (Albee, 2014; Braybrooke, 2004). This implies the finishes prove the methods for the instance of utilitarianism. The advocates of utilitarianism incorporate Stuart Mill and Jeremy Bentham. One of the significant contrasts among philanthropy and utilitarianism is that unselfishness doesn't advocate for any type of independence while utilitarianism advocates for general great, yet the individual can to fulfill their requirements. Utilitarianism produces joy while selflessness centers around decreasing any opportunity that despondency may happen in people (Albee, 2014; Braybrooke, 2004). Benevolence and utilitarianism are comparable in that both backer for joy as the final product of all activities of people. Both moral points of view have some component of ethical quality in them. The two additionally have some type of torment and fulfillment after an activity (Albee, 2014; Braybrooke, 2004). The instance of selflessness can be very much clarified on account of chipping in an occupation instead of finding a new line of work that would be well paying. At the point when an individual forego a well-paying employment to go for a pro bono position, for example, planting trees or thinking about the older or wiped out patients, this might be named as unselfishness since the individual has picked to forfeit
Tuesday, May 26, 2020
A Neutral View of Commitment to Excellence Essay Samples
A Neutral View of Commitment to Excellence Essay Samples You have to have the self-confidence to stand by such decisions when you could be sure which you are right. Ability to address conflict Conflict is a simple fact of life. This guarantees that the set corporate objectives can be accomplished in the desired manner. Resourcing within this context can be utilized to mean the manipulation that's accomplished by the management to the workers or workers and other resources in the organization that are key in creating a strategy to of accomplishing the desired organizational targets and objectives. When you're able to separate what's important from what is not, you'll discover yourself accomplishing your goals a good deal faster, and find yourself doing more of what you would like to do rather than things you need to do. It is necessary for a leader to have the ability to communicate effectively with everyone on the team whatsoever times. An excellent leader doesn't sit back a nd observe what's happening, but rather they need to be the one making the decisions and making certain that the remainder of the team sees them through. Excellent leaders have the ability to communicate in a manner that others can engage with. Commitment to Excellence Essay Samples: the Ultimate Convenience! An academic letter isn't just a document that can showcase your mastery when it has to do with a distinct academic subject. The total format of your essay, for example, font size and margins, will solely count on the instructions provided to you. What's more, the students aren't supposed to compose their resume in paragraph form. The very first sample essays given in the pdf link below do an outstanding job of creating the case for the writer's individual and intellectual readiness for the proposed project. What You Should Do to Find Out About Commitment to Excellence Essay Samples Before You're Left Behind Leadership can show itself in various forms and span a number o f industries. Excellence has to be managed. Commitment enables us to keep up a high level of perseverance. True commitment indicates the method of success. What Everybody Dislikes About Commitment to Excellence Essay Samples and Why Business excellence is something which every business whether it's little and privately owned or an international corporation struggles to attain. Business leaders should have a very clear view of what growth means to their personal businesses. To grow your company, you must grow yourself. In doing this, the whole company can improve dramatically and move towards total small business excellence. Both law and company schools also often need many essays of their applicants, with questions which range from details about your private background to questions asking you to compose an essay exploring a controversial matter. Based on the area of education where you are in, you want to make certain your readers can observe patterns of evidence presente d so that they can clearly see how you had the ability to generate and produce insights. Therefore, students should concentrate on the key points rather than generalizing on all of the info. The course materials which you have to speak about within an academic essay can reflect your degree of understanding about the topic. The Secret to Commitment to Excellence Essay Samples Though your opportunities attending your top choice are higher in the event that you apply early, acceptance isn't ever a sure thing. A superb leader must also make sure he or she not only communicates the suitable info to the team, but in addition that everybody understands it. Everything they do is a success, since they don't observe the results they're getting as failure. When you're self-respecting, you make the commitment to be at the peak of your game. The Importance of Commitment to Excellence Essay Samples In other words, an academic essay may be an evidence of the depth of your research proced ures and the rest of the activities you've executed so you can support the content of your written output. The very first use of management is controlling. The society does engage in a wide variety of community service activities. This practice of academic excellence gives us the capability to be a very good human being. Choose to produce every moment count. The standard of an individual's life, not only the quality of their work, or the caliber of their precise job, but the caliber of their whole life is dependent on their commitment to excellence. Inspiring A Display confidence in everything that you do. Believe in your dream and you will be invested in the invention of your success. Want to Know More About Commitment to Excellence Essay Samples? It's simple to point out an essay that's been written solely for the interest of it. An academic essay always must be relevant. Always remember your academic essay ought to be playful it must not bore your audience. Consequen tly, college essay writing help stipulates the next ten strategies for crafting an essay. These individuals can note small mistakes which are normally omitted when writing an essay. It lets your readers know the subject of your academic essay and what they are able to anticipate from the full article. These kinds of essays are guaranteed to doze off your readers. If you wish to make an academic essay which is both outstanding and relevant, always set the items that we've discussed above in mind. Choosing Good Commitment to Excellence Essay Samples Your academic essay should evoke an emotion that is needed to spark different ideas, opinions and other types of responses. Sum up all of the information which you have presented so that people may identify whether your conclusion has lived up to the content of what you've written. Oftentimes it's only a case of locating the proper advice on the proper essay format from the best people. Someone's observable behavior is a sign of her character. Get the Scoop on Commitment to Excellence Essay Samples Before You're Too Lat e Money is not as likely to materialize below this mental and emotional dynamic. Commitment is an element that decides the future of an individual. These skills aren't only important within the school environment, but on the opposite hand, they are sometimes utilised in community service that's an integral issue to society. Know your brilliance and learn how to become it daily.
Friday, May 15, 2020
Report on Lab Final
Question 1: Separation of mixtures Extraction This is a method of separation of two immiscible solvent phases. It is the best method for the separation of a mixture of Cyclohexanone and Acetone (miscible) Reason: Cyclohexanone is insoluble in water while Acetone is miscible with water. A mixture of the two compounds forms two distinct layers in water. Distillation cannot be used because the two compounds are highly flammable. Procedure: In this method of separation, water is added to the mixture. Acetone completely mixes with water while cyclohexanone does not. A funnel is then used to separate the two. (Note: the colouration is used to show the difference in the liquid layers. This is not the actual colours). 2. Column chromatography This is a method of separation of mixtures based on differential adsorption of substance by the adsorbent. In this case, it is the best method for separation of tetrahydrofuran and acetonitrile. Reason: Tetrahydrofuran has low viscosity at standard temperatures while acetonitrile provides a mobile phase in the chromatography. Acetonitrile is also highly flammable and therefore, distillation cannot be used to separate it. 3. Distillation This is the method of separation used for two liquids with different boiling points, or a solid and a liquid. It is the best method for separation of benzoic acid and toluene. Reason: Benzoic acid is a crystalline solid that results from partial oxidation of toluene. Question 2: Purity and melting Points 2 a) The melting points are given below. Purity also decreases downwards. Compound                                        melting point (0C)                actual melting point (0C) Salicylic acid                                    87-89                                                 87.33 p-dibromobenzene                                      155-159                                             159 Benzoic acid                                     110-122C,                                        122 2 b) Reasons for variations in melting points Impurities – presence of impurities will always lower the melting point. Temperature variations. Question 3:    Thin Layer Chromatography 3 a)     Column preparation by TLC A thin layer chromatography of the mixture is run and a sample of a known compound in the solution spotted. The solvent is then allowed to evaporate and the compound re-dissolved in a slightly solvent onto a silica gel TLC plate. A line is then drawn, about one-half centimeter from the bottom of the plate and the sample spotted on the line. The spot is kept as small as possible. The TLC plate is then placed in a developing jar containing an appropriate level of the proper solvent, and the top back of the jar rested. The solvent is then allowed to travel up the plate to about half a centimeter from the top and the solvent front marked. The plate is then allowed to dry and the spot visualized under UV light. Finally, the spot concentration is determined.
Wednesday, May 6, 2020
Reluctant Witnesses Children s Voices From The Civil...
In this historical text, Reluctant Witnesses: Children’s Voices from the Civil War, Emmy Werner retells the events of the Civil War through the eyes of children who are male, female, black, and white. Werner worked to sift through the reactions and experiences of the young men and women who were involved in the Civil War. Each chapter articulates a different portion of the battle and the events during the Civil War. Chapter two, five, six, eight, and nine capture the eye-witness accounts from young soldiers and young women who lived through the Battle of Shiloh, the Battle of Gettysburg, the siege of Vicksburg, the burning of Atlanta, and Sherman’s march to the sea. Chapter three, four, seven, and ten depict the responses the young children had at Andersonville, during the bread riots, the triumph at Washington D.C., and the voices of the former slaves of the south. Werner thrived to increase the knowledge on the involvement of children within the Civil War. Werner†™s historical picture was to present the realities children faced on and off the field of battle. Werner’s argument focused on children’s perspective of the Civil War. She supports her claim by providing diary, letter, and journal excerpts from one hundred and twenty children ages four to sixteen, by being focused on their subjective experiences of the hardships they endured and how they managed to cope with them drawing, where appropriate, parallels to the experiences of children in contemporary civil strife.Show MoreRelatedInjustice Anywhere3567 Words  | 15 PagesUniversity This article won the first prize (Rs. 25,000 cash) in the 2nd Annual All Pakistan Essay Writing Competition held by Quaid-e-Azam Law College. â€Å"Injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere. 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Tuesday, May 5, 2020
Postmodernism in Literature free essay sample
The term Postmodern literature is used to describe certain tendencies in post-World War II literature. It is both a continuation of the experimentation championed by writers of the modernist period (relying heavily, for example, on fragmentation, paradox, questionable narrators, etc. ) and a reaction against Enlightenment ideas implicit in Modernist literature. Postmodern literature, like postmodernism as a whole, is difficult to define and there is little agreement on the exact characteristics, scope, and importance of postmodern literature. However, unifying features often coincide with Jean-Francois Lyotards concept of the meta-narrative and little narrative, Jacques Derridas concept of play, and Jean Baudrillards simulacra. For example, instead of the modernist quest for meaning in a chaotic world, the postmodern author eschews, often playfully, the possibility of meaning, and the postmodern novel is often a parody of this quest. This distrust of totalizing mechanisms extends even to the author; thus postmodern writers often celebrate chance over craft and employ metafiction to undermine the authors univocal control (the control of only one voice). The distinction between high and low culture is also attacked with the employment of pastiche, the combination of multiple cultural elements including subjects and genres not previously deemed fit for literature. A list of postmodern authors often varies; the following are some names of authors often so classified, most of them belonging to the generation born in the interwar period: Other significant examples of 18th century parody include the works of Jonathan Swift and Shamela by Henry Fielding. There were many 19th century examples of attacks on Enlightenment concepts, parody, and playfulness in literature including Lord Byrons satire, especially Don Juan; Thomas Carlyles Sartor Resartus; Alfred Jarrys ribald Ubu parodies and his invention of Pataphysics; Lewis Carrols playful experiments with signification; the work of Isidore Ducasse, Arthur Rimbaud, Oscar Wilde, etc. Playwrights who worked in the late 19th and early 20th century whose thought and work influenced the aesthetic of postmodernism include Swedish dramatist August Strindberg, the Italian author Luigi Pirandello, and the German playwright and theorist Bertolt Brecht. In the 1910s, artists associated with Dadaism celebrated chance, parody, playfulness, and attacked the central role of the artist. Tristan Tzara claimed in How to Make a Dadaist Poem that to create a Dadaist poem one had only to put random words in a hat and pull them out one by one. Another way Dadaism influenced postmodern literature was in the development of collage, specifically collages using elements from advertisement or illustrations from popular novels (the collages of Max Ernst, for example). Artists associated with Surrealism, which developed from Dadaism, continued experimentations with chance and parody while celebrating the flow of the subconscious. Andre Breton, the founder of Surrealism, suggested that automatism and the description of dreams should play a greater role in the creation of literature. He used automatism to create his novel Nadja and used photographs to replace description as a parody of the overly-descriptive novelists he often criticized. Surrealist Rene Magrittes experiments with signification are used as examples by Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault. Foucault also uses examples from Jorge Luis Borges, an important direct influence on many Postmodernist fiction writers. He is occasionally listed as a Postmodernist though he started writing in the 1920s. The influence of his experiments with metafiction and magical realism was not fully realized until the postmodern period. 2] Comparisons with modernist literature Both modern and postmodern literature represent a break from 19th century realism, in which a story was told from an objective or omniscient point of view. In character development, both modern and postmodern literature explore subjectivism, turning from external reality to examine inner states of consciousness, in many cases drawing on modernist exam ples in the stream of consciousness styles of Virginia Woolf and James Joyce, or explorative poems like The Waste Land by T. S. Eliot. In addition, both modern and postmodern literature explore fragmentariness in narrative- and character-construction. The Waste Land is often cited as a means of distinguishing modern and postmodern literature. The poem is fragmentary and employs pastiche like much postmodern literature, but the speaker in The Waste Land says, these fragments I have shored against my ruins. Modernist literature sees fragmentation and extreme subjectivity as an existential crisis, or Freudian internal conflict, a problem that must be solved, and the artist is often cited as the one to solve it. Postmodernists, however, often demonstrate that this chaos is insurmountable; the artist is impotent, and the only recourse against ruin is to play within the chaos. Playfulness is present in many modernist works (Joyces Finnegans Wake or Virginia Woolfs Orlando, for example) and they may seem very similar to postmodern works, but with postmodernism playfulness becomes central and the actual achievement of order and meaning becomes unlikely. [3] Shift to postmodernism As with all stylistic eras, no definite dates exist for the rise and fall of postmodernisms popularity. 941, the year in which Irish novelist James Joyce and British novelist Virginia Woolf both died, is sometimes used as a rough boundary for postmodernisms start. The prefix post, however, does not necessarily imply a new era. Rather, it could also indicate a reaction against modernism in the wake of the Second World War (with its disrespect for human rights, just confirmed in the Geneva Convention, through the atomic b ombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the Holocaust, the bombing of Dresden, the fire-bombing of Tokyo, and Japanese American internment). It ould also imply a reaction to significant post-war events: the beginning of the Cold War, the civil rights movement in the United States, postcolonialism (Postcolonial literature), and the rise of the personal computer (Cyberpunk fiction and Hypertext fiction). [4][5][6] Some further argue that the beginning of postmodern literature could be marked by significant publications or literary events. For example, some mark the beginning of postmodernism with the first performance of Waiting for Godot in 1953, the first publication of Howl in 1956 or of Naked Lunch in 1959. For others the beginning is marked by moments in critical theory: Jacques Derridas Structure, Sign, and Play lecture in 1966 or as late as Ihab Hassans usage in The Dismemberment of Orpheus in 1971. Post-war developments and transition figures Though Postmodernist literature does not refer to everything written in the postmodern period, several post-war developments in literature (such as the Theatre of the Absurd, the Beat Generation, and Magical Realism) have significant similarities. These developments are occasionally collectively labeled postmodern; more commonly, some key figures (Samuel Beckett, William S. Burroughs, Jorge Luis Borges, Julio Cortazar and Gabriel Garcia Marquez) are cited as significant contributors to the postmodern aesthetic. The work of Jarry, the Surrealists, Antonin Artaud, Luigi Pirandello and so on also influenced the work of playwrights from the Theatre of the Absurd. The term Theatre of the Absurd was coined by Martin Esslin to describe a tendency in theatre in the 1950s; he related it to Albert Camuss concept of the absurd. The plays of the Theatre of the Absurd parallel postmodern fiction in many ways. For example, The Bald Soprano by Eugene Ionesco is essentially a series of cliches taken from a language textbook. One of the most important figures to be categorized as both Absurdist and Postmodern is Samuel Beckett. The work of Samuel Beckett is often seen as marking the shift from modernism to postmodernism in literature. He had close ties with modernism because of his friendship with James Joyce; however, his work helped shape the development of literature away from modernism. Joyce, one of the exemplars of modernism, celebrated the possibility of language; Beckett had a revelation in 1945 that, in order to escape the shadow of Joyce, he must focus on the poverty of language and man as a failure. His later work, likewise, featured characters stuck in inescapable situations attempting impotently to communicate whose only recourse is to play, to make the best of what they have. As Hans-Peter Wagner says, Mostly concerned with what he saw as impossibilities in fiction (identity of characters; reliable consciousness; the reliability of language itself; and the rubrication of literature in genres) Becketts experiments with narrative form and with the disintegration of narration and character in fiction and drama won him the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1969. His works published after 1969 are mostly meta-literary attempts that must be read in light of his own theories and previous works and the attempt to deconstruct literary forms and genres. ] Becketts last text published during his lifetime, Stirrings Still (1988), breaks down the barriers between drama, fiction, and poetry, with texts of the collection being almost entirely composed of echoes and reiterations of his previous work [ ] He was definitely one of the fathers of the postmodern movement in fiction which has continued undermining the ideas of logical coherence in narration, formal plot, regular time sequence, and psychologically explained characters. [7] The Beat Generation is a name coined by Jack Kerouac for the disaffected youth of America during the materialistic 1950s; Kerouac developed ideas of automatism into what he called spontaneous prose to create a maximalistic, multi-novel epic called the Duluoz Legend in the mold of Marcel Prousts Remembrance of Things Past. Beat Generation is often used more broadly to refer to several groups of post-war American writers from the Black Mountain poets, the New York School, the San Francisco Renaissance, and so on. These writers have occasionally also been referred to as the Postmoderns (see especially references by Charles Olson and the Grove anthologies edited by Donald Allen). Though this is now a less common usage of postmodern, references to these writers as postmodernists still appear and many writers associated with this group (John Ashbery, Richard Brautigan, Gilbert Sorrentino, and so on) appear often on lists of postmodern writers. One writer associated with the Beat Generation who appears most often on lists of postmodern writers is William S. Burroughs. Burroughs published Naked Lunch in Paris in 1959 and n America in 1961; this is considered by some the first truly postmodern novel because it is fragmentary, with no central narrative arc; it employs pastiche to fold in elements from popular genres such as detective fiction and science fiction; its full of parody, paradox, and playfulness; and, according to some accounts, friends Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg edited the book guided by chance. He is also noted, along with Brion Gysin, for the creation of the cut-up technique, a technique (similar to Tzaras Dadaist Poem) in which words and phrases are cut from a newspaper or other publication and rearranged to form a new message. This is the technique he used to create novels such as Nova Express and The Ticket That Exploded. Magical Realism is a technique popular among Latin American writers (and can also be considered its own genre) in which supernatural elements are treated as mundane (a famous example being the practical-minded and ultimately dismissive treatment of an apparently angelic figure in Gabriel Garcia Marquezs A Very Old Man with Enormous Wings). Though the technique has its roots in traditional storytelling, it was a center piece of the Latin American boom, a movement coterminous with postmodernism. Some of the major figures of the Boom and practitioners of Magical Realism (Jorge Luis Borges, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Julio Cortazar etc. ) are often listed as postmodernists. Many postmodernists not from Latin America (Salman Rushdie, Italo Calvino, Gunter Grass, etc. ) commonly use Magical Realism in their work. [8] Along with Beckett and Borges, a commonly cited transitional figure is Vladimir Nabokov; like Beckett and Borges, Nabokov started publishing before the beginning of postmodernity (1926 in Russian, 1941 in English). Though his most famous novel, Lolita (1955), could be considered a modernist or a postmodernist novel, his later work (specifically Pale Fire in 1962 and Ada or Ardor: A Family Chronicle in 1969) are more clearly postmodern. [9] The scope Postmodernism in literature is not an organized movement with leaders or central figures; therefore, it is more difficult to say if it has ended or when it will end (compared to, say, declaring the end of modernism with the death of Joyce or Woolf). Arguably postmodernism peaked in the 60s and 70s ith the publication of Catch-22 in 1961, Lost in the Funhouse in 1968, Slaughterhouse Five in 1969, Gravitys Rainbow in 1973, and many others. Some declared the death of postmodernism in the 80s with a new surge of realism represented and inspired by Raymond Carver. Tom Wolfe in his 1989 article Stalking the Billion-Footed Beast called for a new emphasis on realism in fiction to replace postmodernism. [10] With this new emphasis on realism in mind, some de clared White Noise in 1985 or The Satanic Verses in 1988 to be the last great novels of the postmodern era. However, with the continuing publication of many of the above mentioned authors, the success of younger postmodern writers (such as David Foster Wallace, Dave Eggers, Michael Chabon, Noah Cicero, Zadie Smith, Chuck Palahniuk, Jonathan Lethem), and with publications such as McSweeneys, The Believer, and The Onion, the declaration of the death of postmodernism is arguably premature. [11][12] Amazon. com even described the Mark Z. Danielewski novel House of Leaves, published in 2000 as post-postmodern [1] Common themes and techniques All of these themes and techniques are often used together. For example, metafiction and pastiche are often used for irony. These are not used by all postmodernists, nor is this an exclusive list of features. Irony, playfulness, black humor Linda Hutcheon claimed postmodern fiction as a whole could be characterized by the ironic quote marks, that much of it can be taken as tongue-in-cheek. This irony, along with black humor and the general concept of play (related to Derridas concept or the ideas advocated by Roland Barthes in The Pleasure of the Text) are among the most recognizable aspects of postmodernism. Though the idea of employing these in literature did not start with the postmodernists (the modernists were often playful and ironic), they became central features in many postmodern works. In fact, several novelists later to be labeled postmodern were first collectively labeled black humorists: John Barth, Joseph Heller, William Gaddis, Kurt Vonnegut, Bruce Jay Friedman, etc. Its common for postmodernists to treat serious subjects in a playful and humorous way: for example, the way Heller, Vonnegut, and Pynchon address the events of World War II. A good example of postmodern irony and black humor is found in the stories of Donald Barthelme; The School, for example, is about the ironic death of plants, animals, and people connected to the children in one class, but the inexplicable repetition of death is treated only as a joke and the narrator remains emotionally distant throughout. The central concept of Joseph Hellers Catch-22 is the irony of the now-idiomatic catch 22, and the narrative is structured around a long series of similar ironies. Thomas Pynchon in particular provides prime examples of playfulness, often including silly wordplay, within a serious context. The Crying of Lot 49, for example, contains characters named Mike Fallopian and Stanley Koteks and a radio station called KCUF, while the novel as a whole has a serious subject and a complex structure. [13][14][15] Pastiche To combine, or paste together, multiple elements. In Postmodernist literature this can be an homage to or a parody of past styles. It can be seen as a representation of the chaotic, pluralistic, or information-drenched aspects of postmodern society. It can be a combination of multiple genres to create a unique narrative or to comment on situations in postmodernity: for example, William S. Burroughs uses science fiction, detective fiction, westerns; Margaret Atwood uses science fiction and fairy tales; Umberto Eco uses detective fiction, fairy tales, and science fiction, and so on. Though pastiche commonly refers to the mixing of genres, many other elements are also included (metafiction and temporal distortion are common in the broader pastiche of the postmodern novel). For example, Thomas Pynchon includes in his novels elements from detective fiction, science fiction, and war fiction; songs; pop culture references; well-known, obscure, and fictional history mixed together; real contemporary and historical figures (Mickey Rourke and Wernher Von Braun for example); a wide variety of well-known, obscure and fictional cultures and concepts. In Robert Coovers 1977 novel The Public Burning, Coover mixes historically inaccurate accounts of Richard Nixon interacting with historical figures and fictional characters such as Uncle Sam and Betty Crocker. Pastiche can also refer to compositional technique, for example the cut-up technique employed by Burroughs. Another example is B. S. Johnsons 1969 novel The Unfortunates; it was released in a box with no binding so that readers could assemble it how ever they chose. [16][17][18] Metafiction Metafiction is essentially writing about writing or foregrounding the apparatus, making the artificiality of art or the fictionality of fiction apparent to the reader and generally disregards the necessity for willful suspension of disbelief. It is often employed to undermine the authority of the author, for unexpected narrative shifts, to advance a story in a unique way, for emotional distance, or to comment on the act of storytelling. For example, Italo Calvinos 1979 novel If on a winters night a traveler is about a reader attempting to read a novel of the same name. Kurt Vonnegut also commonly used this technique: the first chapter his 1969 novel Slaughterhouse Five is about the process of writing the novel and calls attention to his own presence throughout the novel. Though much of the novel has to do with Vonneguts own experiences during the firebombing of Dresden, Vonnegut continually points out the artificiality of the central narrative arc which contains obviously fictional elements such as aliens and time travel. Similarly, Tim OBriens 1990 novel/story collection The Things They Carried, about one platoons experiences during the Vietnam War, features a character named Tim OBrien; though OBrien was a Vietnam veteran, the book is a work of fiction and OBrien calls into question the fictionality of the characters and incidents through out the book. One story in the book, How to Tell a True War Story, questions the nature of telling stories. Factual retellings of war stories, the narrator says, would be unbelievable and heroic, moral war stories dont capture the truth. Historiographic metafiction Linda Hutcheon coined the term historiographic metafiction to refer to works that fictionalize actual historical events or figures; notable examples include The General in His Labyrinth by Gabriel Garcia Marquez (about Simon Bolivar), Flauberts Parrot by Julian Barnes (about Gustave Flaubert), and Ragtime by E. L. Doctorow (which features such historical figures as Harry Houdini, Henry Ford, Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, Booker T. Washington, Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung). John Fowles deals similarly with the Victorian Period in The French Lieutenants Woman. In regards to critical theory, this technique can be related to The Death of the Author by Roland Barthes. [19] Temporal distortion This is a common technique in modernist fiction: fragmentation and non-linear narratives are central features in both modern and postmodern literature. Temporal distortion in postmodern fiction is used in a variety of ways, often for the sake of irony. Historiographic metafiction (see above) is an example of this. Distortions in time are central features in many of Kurt Vonneguts non-linear novels, the most famous of which is perhaps Billy Pilgrim in Slaughterhouse Five becoming unstuck in time. In Flight to Canada, Ishmael Reed deals playfully with anachronisms, Abraham Lincoln using a telephone for example. Time may also overlap, repeat, or bifurcate into multiple possibilities. For example, in Robert Coovers The Babysitter from Pricksongs Descants, the author presents multiple possible events occurring simultaneously in one section the babysitter is murdered while in another section nothing happens and so on yet no version of the story is favored as the correct version. [20] Technoculture and hyperreality Fredric Jameson called postmodernism the cultural logic of late capitalism. Late capitalism implies that society has moved past the industrial age and into the information age. Likewise, Jean Baudrillard claimed postmodernity was defined by a shift into hyperreality in which simulations have replaced the real. In postmodernity people are inundated with information, technology has become a central focus in many lives, and our understanding of the real is mediated by simulations of the real. Many works of fiction have dealt with this aspect of postmodernity with characteristic irony and pastiche. For example, Don DeLillos White Noise presents characters who are bombarded with a â€Å"white noise†of television, product brand names, and cliches. The cyberpunk fiction of William Gibson, Neal Stephenson, and many others use science fiction techniques to address this postmodern, hyperreal information bombardment. [21][22][23] Paranoia Perhaps demonstrated most famously and effectively in Joseph Hellers Catch-22 and the work of Thomas Pynchon, the sense of paranoia, the belief that theres an ordering system behind the chaos of the world. For the postmodernist, no ordering system exists, so a search for order is fruitless and absurd. The Crying of Lot 49 by Thomas Pychon has many possible interpretations. If one reads the book with a particular bias, then he or she is going to be frustrated. [24] This often coincides with the theme of technoculture and hyperreality. For example, in Breakfast of Champions by Kurt Vonnegut, the character Dwayne Hoover becomes violent when hes convinced that everyone else in the world is a robot and he is the only human. [25] Maximalism Dubbed maximalism by some critics, the sprawling canvas and fragmented narrative of such writers as Dave Eggers has generated controversy on the purpose of a novel as narrative and the standards by which it should be judged. The postmodern position is that the style of a novel must be appropriate to what it depicts and represents, and points back to such examples in previous ages as Gargantua by Francois Rabelais and the Odyssey of Homer, which Nancy Felson-Rubin hails as the exemplar of the polytropic audience and its engagement with a work. Many modernist critics, notably B. R. Myers in his polemic A Readers Manifesto, attack the maximalist novel as being disorganized, sterile and filled with language play for its own sake, empty of emotional commitmentâ€â€and therefore empty of value as a novel. Yet there are counter-examples, such as Pynchons Mason Dixon, or James Chapmans Stet, where postmodern narrative coexists with emotional commitment. [26][27] Different perspectives John Barth, the postmodernist novelist who talks often about the label postmodern, wrote an influential essay in 1968 called Literature of Exhaustion and in 1979 wrote Literature of Replenishment in order to clarify the earlier essay. Literature of Exhaustion was about the need for a new era in literature after modernism had exhausted itself. In Literature of Replenishment Barth says, My ideal Postmodernist author neither merely repudiates nor merely imitates either his twentieth-century Modernist parents or his nineteenth-century premodernist grandparents. He has the first half of our century under his belt, but not on his back. Without lapsing into moral or artistic simplism, shoddy craftsmanship, Madison Avenue venality, or either false or real naivete, he nevertheless aspires to a fiction more democratic in its appeal than such late-Modernist marvels as Becketts Texts for Nothing The ideal Postmodernist novel will somehow rise above the quarrel between realism and irrealism, formalism and contentism, pure and committed literature, coterie fiction and junk fiction [28] Many of the well-known postmodern novels deal with World War II, one of the most famous of which being Joseph Hellers Catch-22. Heller claimed his novel and many of the other American novels of the time had more to do with the state of the country after the war: The antiwar and anti government feelings in the book belong to the period following World War II: the Korean War, the cold war of the Fifties. A general disintegration of belief took place then, and it affected Catch-22 in that the form of the novel became almost disintegrated. Catch-22 was a collage; if not in structure, then in the ideology of the novel itself Without being aware of it, I was part of a near-movement in fiction. While I was writing Catch-22, J. P. Donleavy was writing The Ginger Man, Jack Kerouac was writing On the Road, Ken Kesey was writing One Flew Over the Cuckoos Nest, Thomas Pynchon was writing V. , and Kurt Vonnegut was writing Cats Cradle. I dont think any one of us even knew any of the others. Certainly I didnt know them. Whatever forces were at work shaping a trend in art were affecting not just me, but all of us. The feelings of helplessness and persecution in Catch-22 are very strong in Pynchon and in Cats Cradle. [29] Novelist and theorist Umberto Eco explains his idea of postmodernism as a kind of double-coding: I think of the postmodern attitude as that of a man who loves a very cultivated woman and knows that he cannot say to her I love you madly, because he knows that she knows (and that she knows he knows) that these words have already been written by Barbara Cartland. Still there is a solution. He can say As Barbara Cartland would put it, I love you madly. At this point, having avoided false innocence, having said clearly it is no longer possible to talk innocently, he will nevertheless say what he wanted to say to the woman: that he loves her in an age of lost innocence. [30] Novelist David Foster Wallace in his essay 1990 essay E Unibus Pluram makes the connection between the rise of postmodernism and the rise of television with its tendency toward self-reference and the ironic juxtaposition of whats seen and whats said. This, he claims, explains the preponderance of pop culture references in postmodern literature: It was in post-atomic America that pop influences on literature became something more than technical. About the time television first gasped and sucked air, mass popular U. S. culture seemed to become High-Art-viable as a collection of symbols and myth. The episcopate of this pop-reference movement were the post-Nabokovian Black Humorists, the Metafictionists and assorted franc-and latinophiles only later comprised by postmodern. The erudite, sardonic fictions of the Black Humorists introduced a generation of new fiction writers who saw themselves as sort of avant-avant-garde, not only cosmopolitan and polyglot but also technologically literate, products of more than just one region, heritage, and theory, and citizens of a culture that said its most important stuff about itself via mass media. In this regard one thinks particularly of the Gaddis of The Recognitions and JR, the Barth of The End of the Road and The Sot-Weed Factor, and the Pynchon of The Crying of Lot 49 Heres Robert Coovers 1966 A Public Burning, in which Eisenhower buggers Nixon on-air, and his 1968 A Political Fable, in which the Cat in the Hat runs for president. [31] Hans-Peter Wagner offers this approach to defining postmodern literature: Postmodernism an be used at least in two ways – firstly, to give a label to the period after 1968 (which would then encompass all forms of fiction, both innovative and traditional), and secondly, to describe the highly experimental literature produced by writers beginning with Lawrence Durrell and John Fowles in the 1960s and reaching to the breathless works of Martin Amis and the Chemical (Scottish) Generation of the fin-de-siecle. In what follows, the term postmodernist is used for experimental authors (especially Durell, Fowles, Carter, Brooke-Rose, Barnes, Ackroyd, and Martin Amis) while post- modern is applied to authors who have been less innovative. [32] Postmodernism (literature), term used to denote a multitude of styles and attitudes which exist partly as a response to high Modernism, and partly as a result of post-industrial mass production and late capitalism. Postmodernism is notoriously difficult to define; indeed, a central tenet is that certain experiences and concepts resist any sort of representation in writing or art. However, one of its most recognizable attributes is a certain self-consciousness with regard to the methods of production and to the social contexts of any work, together with a playful incorporation of, or gesture towards, previous styles and modes of thought.
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